What makes homo sapiens truly different from other species? This question has captivated humanity for ages. We have long held the belief that we are unique, an idea deeply ingrained in our perception. However, as scientific understanding advances, the line between human exceptionalism and the capabilities of other species is blurring. This article delves into this topic, examining the traits once considered exclusive to humans. We will explore complex problem-solving, self-awareness, social behaviors, and the fascinating ability to delay gratification. Join us as we navigate the nuances of what defines human uniqueness, considering evolutionary biology, cognitive science, and the intricate interplay of nature and culture.
The Myth of the Thinking Ape
We often define ourselves as the “thinking ape,” but this distinction is becoming increasingly vague. Thinking, in its basic form, is not unique, as any creature with a brain is capable of thought. Even more complex cognitive abilities, such as recursion and mathematical calculations, are found in other species. Bees, for instance, demonstrate remarkable mathematical prowess. Studies on problem-solving in diverse animals reveal that higher-level thinking is not exclusive to humans. Furthermore, self-awareness, once thought to be a uniquely human trait, has been observed in animals through experiments like the mirror test.
Social species exhibit a wide range of behaviors, including playfulness, creativity, non-procreative sexuality, tool use, and the transmission of cultural knowledge. Murray Bookchin, in his work “Second Nature,” highlights this overlap between human and animal behaviors. While humans excel at precise mimicry in learning, the broader spectrum of social and cognitive capabilities is shared with other species.
Life Beyond Humanity
Evidence suggests that Neanderthals created art before humans, and other hominids utilized tools and fire before us. Human innovation flourished only after interbreeding with Neanderthals in the Levant. Communication, while not necessarily linguistic in the human sense, exists in other species. Prairie dogs, for example, have complex naming systems for other animals, even identifying individuals. The possibility of whale songs representing a form of language remains an open question.
The Peculiar Case of Delayed Gratification
Robert Sapolsky, in his book “Behave,” emphasizes the human capacity to delay gratification, maintaining dopamine levels for extended periods in anticipation of a reward. He suggests this trait is less pronounced in other animals. Defining, observing, and measuring delayed gratification across species presents challenges. While animals exhibit delayed behaviors, the subjective state and intention behind delayed gratification are difficult to ascertain.
Assuming Sapolsky is correct, the human ability to delay gratification may be linked to a larger prefrontal cortex (PFC), crucial for impulse control and long-term thinking. The PFC’s size, measurable through brain scans, provides a basis for comparing species. Greater neurocognitive development and health, supported by increased brain size due to nutrient-dense diets, also contribute to impulse control.
Ketosis and Enhanced Neurocognition
The PFC is sensitive to glucose availability, and reduced glucose can lead to neurocognitive decline. Ketones, an alternative energy source for the brain, offer a unique advantage. Humans possess an exceptional ability to enter ketosis rapidly, allowing for extended fasting periods and enhanced neurocognitive function. Human neurons readily utilize ketones, which also promote neurocognitive health.
Ketones are produced from fat, and the body can generate water as a byproduct of fat burning. Humans can fast for extended periods without significant risk, and ketones enable sustained physical activity. This adaptation may have been crucial during the Paleolithic era when long intervals between meals were common. Human evolution appears to have favored ketosis as a regular, advantageous physiological state.
Fasting, Culture, and Impulse Control
Fasting is a common practice in traditional societies, often combined with challenging activities that demand self-control and focus. The ability to endure fasting demonstrates physical fitness and even moral character. Ketosis reduces hunger pangs and cravings, potentially mitigating addictive tendencies linked to impulsivity.
Ketosis may strengthen impulse control, contributing to delayed gratification. Individuals on keto diets often report feelings of calmness, improved energy, focus, and mood. Scientific research indicates that ketones affect the dopaminergic system, increasing dopamine release and levels in the blood.
Healthy Humans and Evolutionary Norms
Impulse control is not universal among humans. It is most pronounced in healthy individuals under optimal conditions, reflecting evolutionary norms. Chronic stressors, such as malnourishment and poverty, can impair PFC development and compromise impulse control, leading to risky behaviors. Metabolic disorders, often caused by high-carb diets, correlate with impulsivity and mental health issues.
Key human features, such as opposable thumbs and dexterity, are linked to intelligence and the PFC. Procuring meat and fat provided nutrition to support a larger brain and ketosis. The human downturned nose may aid swimming, increasing access to nutrient-rich aquatic foods. Omega-3 fatty acids from these foods are metabolized into ketones.
The Power of Cooperation and Endurance
Humans exchanged muscle strength for endurance and fine muscle control. Tool use reduced the need for brute force. Paleolithic humans hunted cooperatively, relying on coordination and planning. A larger brain required more energy, leading to a smaller intestinal tract and a reliance on calorie-dense foods.
Human endurance relates to ketosis, allowing for prolonged physical activity. Hairlessness aids in cooling, and the ability to decouple breathing from gait enhances running efficiency. Humans are exceptional long-distance runners, employing persistence hunting techniques. The Hadza people exemplify this, focusing intensely on obtaining meat, displaying impulse control and delayed gratification.
Leisure Time and Innovation
Animal foods require less time and energy to obtain, allowing humans a more relaxed lifestyle. Foragers work only a few hours a day, leaving ample time for socializing, creativity, and innovation. This, combined with neurocognitive capacity and impulse control, fosters adaptability and long-term planning. Oral cultures maintain vast knowledge through mnemonic systems, demonstrating the ability to delay gratification across generations.
*More on impulse control
Impulse control is an evolved trait, not necessarily linked to free will or egoic self-control. Neurological mechanisms intervene in other mechanisms, explained through physiological terms. Like prosocial behavior, impulse control is a natural instinct. The conditions for prosociality are collective and environmental, emphasizing the importance of public health.
The Role of Communal Identity
Regardless of one’s stance on free will, improving shared conditions is crucial. A relational and communal identity offers the greatest leverage for positive change. Seeking to develop greater impulse control can help suppress judgmental urges. The moral impulse, a state of grace, is human nature at its best.
For further reading
- Ketogenic diet: a potential adjunctive treatment for substance use disorders Deshenyue Kong, et al
“By analyzing data from 17 countries worldwide, sugar and sweetener supply quantity were significantly and positively associated with anxiety disorders, mood disorders, impulse control disorders, and SUD [substance use disorders]”
“standardised neuropsychological assessment […] indicated significant improvements in attention, abstract conceptual reasoning, and impulse control […] Subjective parent-, teacher-, and self-report questionnaire data […] indicated significant improvements in overall executive functioning, inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity for all raters”
- A Ketogenic Diet Improves Cognition and Has Biochemical Effects in Prefrontal Cortex That Are Dissociable From Hippocampus Abbi R. Hernandez, et al
“One mechanism for decline that the PFC and HPC share, however, is a reduced ability to utilize glucose for energy metabolism. […] [ketogenic diet]-fed rats had biochemical alterations within PFC that were dissociable from previous results in the HPC [hippocampus]”
- Acutely increased β-hydroxybutyrate plays a role in the prefrontal cortex to escape stressful conditions during the acute stress response Hyeonwi Son, et al
“Our results suggest that the metabolism of BHB from peripheral blood in the PFC may contribute to acute stress responses to escape stressful conditions.”
“Studies show that individuals with ADHD often have reduced glucose metabolism in the prefrontal cortex, the brain region responsible for attention and impulse control.”
Conclusion: Redefining Human Uniqueness
In summary, the notion of human uniqueness is increasingly complex. While traits such as advanced neurocognitive abilities and the capacity for delayed gratification may distinguish us, the boundaries between human and animal capabilities are less defined than previously thought. The ability to enter ketosis, the role of the prefrontal cortex, and the importance of cooperation and endurance all contribute to our understanding of what makes humans distinct.
Ultimately, whether humans are truly unique may be less important than recognizing our place within the broader context of the natural world. Our social nature, combined with our capacity for innovation and long-term planning, positions us as a species capable of significant impact. By focusing on shared conditions and promoting public health, we can leverage our unique attributes to create a more compassionate and effective society. The key takeaway is that human potential is best realized when we embrace our interconnectedness and strive for collective well-being.